Useful expressions: Writing essays

1 Introduction:

It is often claimed / said / asserted / stated…

Today we are often confronted with the problem of…

One must ask oneself whether / why / how…

This assertion raises a fundamental question / issue…

We must examine the truth of this…

2 Developing arguments:

a) First(ly)… second(ly)… third(ly)…

On the one hand… on the other hand…

However,…

b) Furthermore,…

In addition,…

Likewise,…

Similarly,…

Moreover,…

It must also be said that…

c) For example…

Take for example…

…, for instance, …

To illustrate this,…

…illustrates this point perfectly.

d) As X said / wrote / claimed…

In the words of X…

To quote X,…

e) It is certainly true / correct…

…as everyone knows.It is difficult to believe…

…seems (un)likely / probable / (im)possible…

f) It is vital / essential to realize / acknowledge / accept…

g) However,… we must not forget that… / there are other issues to consider.

Let us now turn to…

h) On the contrary…

This completely contradicts…

It must be admitted that…

3 Ending the essay

All in all,…

All of these facts lead me to the conclusion…

Summing up, I…

Having outlined the main arguments…

To conclude…

As a result,…

About the camera

Distance between the camera and the object

long shot

– presents the whole setting for orientation

full shot

– gives us a complete picture of s.o. or s.th.

medium shot

– brings viewers closer to a person/an action

close-up

– draws vewers’ attention to s.o. or s.th. specific, e.g. reveals s.o.’s feelings or reactions by showing his/her facial expression

detail shot (extreme close-up)

– gives particular attention to s.th. to show its importance in a scene

Position and angle of the camera

establishing shot – sets the scene for the action to come

overhead shot

– sets the scene; gives an overall impression of the setting

over-the-shoulder shot

– viewers are given the impression that they are involved in the dialogue

reverse-angle shot

– often used with the over-the-shoulder shot to give viewers both sides of a dialogue

high-angle shot

– makes a character seem small, weak and vulnerable

eye-level shot

– gives the impression of authenticity and directness

low-angle shot

– enlarges s.th. and stresses its importance/power

Camera movement

static shot – can give an impression of calmness

to pan left/right

– follows an action; gives a wider impression of a location; moves viewers’ attention from one thing to another

to tilt up/down

– shows an object or person in full length

to zoom in on/out from s.th.

– concentrates attention on or moves attention away from s.o. or s.th.

crane shot

– allows flexible shots in all directions and smooth transitions

tracking shot

– allows viewers to follow an action closely; may speed up a scene

hand-held camera

– the uneven movement heightens the impression of reality/authenticity

Linking shots

cut – fast cuts give the impression of fast-paced action; slow cuts focus the viewer’s attention on the emotional significance of a situation or create a calm atmosphere

fade-in

– begins a scene slowlyfade-out – ends a scene in a memorable way

dissolve

– the action moves slowly from one scene to the next; it produces a special link or contrast between two scenes

Editing shots flashback

– to provide background information, to recall a past event

flashforward

– to indicate future developments

cross-cutting

– to show links between two events, e.g. parallel action or a contrastsplit screen

– to show different aspects of a scene/character (emphasis on parallelism or contrast)jump cut

– to maintain suspense, to eliminate irrelevant action

The four steps of film scene analysis

Step 1: First viewing – focus on action

(Try to understand the gist of the action. Include key phrases from the dialogue.)

setting: What is the time and place of the action? What kind of atmosphere is created?

plot: What happens, and why?suspense: What questions remain unanswered? Why do you want to keep on viewing?

Step 2: Second viewing – focus on characters (First describe and then comment on the impressions conveyed of the character(s))

appearance: hair, cleanliness, clothes

body language: face, gestures, posture, movements

language/communication: choice of words, tone, sentences, interaction

Step 3: What is the main function of this scene in the film? Place the scene in the context of the film. Does it move the action forward?

build suspense?

present a surprising turning-point in the action?

reveal a new trait in the protagonist’s character?

introduce a new character?

define a relationship?

Step 4: Third viewing – focus on cinematic devices (How do cinematic devices serve the main function of the scene?)

camera operations

visual symbols (an object stands for s.th. else):

universally understood symbols (the American flag, the cross), symbols which take on a meaning in the context of the film, e.g. through repetition or special emphasis (close-ups)

film music/sound: to show a mood or a character’s emotions, to evoke nostalgic feelings for a past era, to foreshadow an event, to build up suspense, to provide transitions between scenes, etc.

other effects: computer-generated imaging, slow motion, fast motion, voice-over narration (= voice speaking off-screen)

Kameraeinstellungen

• Weit / Panorama

viel Landschaft, kleine Menschen

Überblick, Grundstimmung erzeugen

• Totale

Szene mit allen wichtigen Elementen, Menschen sind eher untergeordnet

deutet eine Aktion an

• Halbnah

Menschen von der Hüfte an aufwärts

situativ, häufig bei Figurenkonstelleationen, Dialogen

• Amerikanisch

Western Stil – Gesicht und Hand zum Revolver

• Nah

Kopf bis Mitte Oberkörper / Brust

betont Mimik + Gestik z.B. bei Gespräch, Diskussion

• Groß

Kopf und Schulter/Mimik und Emotionen

Charakterisierung, Identifikation des Zuschauers mit der Figur

• Detail Ausschnitt aus dem Gesicht / Gegenständen

Signal, Betonung einer Emotion oder Handlung